Are instructional design elements being used in module writing?

This paper discusses the elements of instructional design (ID) and technical design in module writing. An evaluation instrument was developed to evaluate the modules written by course lecturers from the School of Distance Education, Universiti Sains Malaysia. In the study, fifty modules (12%) were selected from the Arts, Science and Engineering courses. The findings of the evaluation showed that instructional modules were weak in a number of elements. The study recommended that multimedia and distance learning strategies should be integrated in the learning activities. Post-test and pre-test may be considered to make the learning modules more self-contained, self-instructional, and interactive. Courses on distance learning theories, instructional design and development, media selection, media attributes, multimedia production, media integration, utilisation and management in distance and open learning may help course writers to write better modules. The Centre needs to have a standard guideline for module writing. The present guidelines need to be improved to include other ID and technical elements in module writing. Introduction The Distance Education Programme at Universiti Sains Malaysia gives the opportunity for working adults to learn independently in terms of time and space, not face-to-face as in the conventional mode. The distance learners mainly use self-instructional materials commonly known as “modules” supported by remote classes using video or audio graphic conferencing, multimedia materials such as audio cassettes, recorded video tapes, computer-based materials and slides, communication technologies such as telephone, telegram, facsimile and internet. Dick and Carey (1990) defined the module as a self-instructional printed unit of instruction that has an integrated theme, provides students with information needed to acquire and assess specific skills and knowledge, and serves as one unit of a total curriculum. The instructional module needs to be systematically designed to facilitate learning without the constant supervision of a teacher. It requires the learners to interact actively with the instructional materials rather than simply allowing them to read the materials passively (Dick and Carey, 1990). It should be free standing and self-contained and designed to be used by individual distance learner or group-based instruction. Preferably, all elements of the conventional classroom teaching have to be built in the instructional unit. The module has to get the learner’s attention, state instructional objectives, introduce the topic, recall previous learning, present new materials, provide examples and answers, provide practice and feedback, select appropriate media and learning strategies and give remedial and enrichment activities. This is similar to Gagne’s instructional events in conventional face-to-face teaching. This paper attempts to examine the instructional design (ID) elements and the technical design elements used in writing self-instructional modules. An evaluation instrument was developed to evaluate the modules written by the distance education lecturers from Centre for Distance Education, Universiti Sains Malaysia. The distance learners enrolled in the undergraduate degree programmes use these modules. The objectives of the evaluation are: 1. To identify the instructional design and technical elements needed in writing selfinstructional modules; 2. To evaluate the use of ID in writing modules; 3. To suggest recommendations for the improvement of module writing. The evaluation did not cover the content of the modules which is the responsibility of academic assessors or subject matter specialists. Thus far there is no comprehensive evaluation on the use of ID in module writing. The Centre’s Educational Technology Committee evaluates the overall aspects of the modules when they are ready for publication. Developing evaluation instrument Continuous evaluation is needed to check and review the status of the module and the quality of the overall academic programme offered. One of the main components of a successful distance and open learning programme is the quality of its learning materials. Since the teacher and the learner are separated, the learning materials used should be teaching rather than informing. The evaluation instrument developed was based on the instructional design components suggested by Dick and Carey (1990), Heinich et al. (1996) and Gagne’s instructional events (1992). Dick and Carey (1990) and Heinich et al. (1996) agreed that there are several ways to write or design instructional modules. Usually designers may agree with the definition above but they differ in terms of the steps, elements and characteristics of the module. In the Dick and Carey model (1990), they proposed a systematic approach to designing an instructional unit or module. They identify nine steps in the design process: 1. Identify an instructional goal 2. Conduct an instructional analysis 342 British Journal of Educational Technology Vol 30 No 4 1999 © British Educational Communications and Technology Agency, 1999. 3. Identify entry behaviours, characteristics 4. Write performance objectives 5. Develop criterion-referenced test items 6. Develop an instructional strategy 7. Develop and/or select instructional materials 8. Design and conduct the formative evaluation 9. Revise instruction. The steps in Dick and Carey’s model explain how to design the instructional product. Whereas, the design elements recommended by Heinich et al. (1996) suggest the main elements of module writing. Heinich’s ID elements do not suggest procedural steps as in the Dick and Carey model and are therefore more suitable to evaluate the modules. They recommended that the following design elements are essential in designing instructional modules: 1. Rationale 2. Instructional objectives 3. Entry test 4. Multimedia materials 5. Learning activities 6. Self-test 7. Post-test. However, these seven design elements do not include the instructional goal element that is common in any instructional design model. Richey (1986) summarised six core elements in instructional design process that include instructional goal as one of the core elements. The instructional goal states in broad terms the kind of skills and knowledge that the learner can do or attain at the end of the instructional unit. From the instructional goal, module writers can write down the instructional objectives that consist of the various specific skills and knowledge that the learner needs to master in order to reach the instructional goal. Heinich et al. (1996) may have excluded the instructional goal element to give more emphasis on specific instructional objectives rather than broad instructional goal. Moreover, the school may have already fixed the instructional goal. However, Dick and Carey (1990) believe that “it is almost always necessary for the designer to clarify and sometimes amplify the goal in order for it to serve as a firm starting point for the instructional design process”. So the instructional goal element is added in the ID elements to develop the module evaluation instrument. The eight ID elements are further elaborated to cover other sub elements that are useful in module writing. Gagne’s learning hierarchy and instructional events (1992) and Bloom’s learning taxonomy (Bloom et al., 1956) are adapted in the final instrument. The ID elements are described in Section A and Tables 3 through 6 of the evaluation instrument. The technical design in the evaluation instrument is adapted from the Centre’s house style (See Table 1). Module writers may use the style as a guideline. The technical Are instructional design elements being used in module writing? 343 © British Educational Communications and Technology Agency, 1999. elements for module writing are described in Section B and Table 7 of the evaluation instrument. Module evaluation instrument The evaluation instrument is divided into two sections: Instructional design elements and technical design elements. Section A consists of 8 instructional design elements and Section B consists of 7 technical elements. Section A: Instructional design In Section A, the following eight ID elements and sub elements were used to evaluate the modules: 1. Rationale: An overview of the content and its relation with other modules, the intended user, status of the course (eg, minor, optional, prerequisite or basic), reasons for using modules and the evaluation weight required for the course. Evaluation format consists of the distribution of grade (in percentage) for assignment/course work, tests, project, final examination and so forth. 2. Instructional goal(s). The general statement of what the learner is able to do and attain at the end of the instruction. The goal(s) is stated at the beginning of a module. For example, if a course has 4 modules, every module should have 4 instructional goals. From the instructional goal, module writers can write down the instructional objectives that consist of the various specific skills and knowledge that the learner needs to master in order to reach the instructional goal. 3. Instructional objectives: Stated in performance terms, the list of specific skills and knowledge that the learner needs to master after reading or following the module. The objectives are derived from the broad goal(s) statement and they are stated at the beginning of the instructional unit. Instructional objectives should be written clearly and accurately, arranged according to learning domains and learning hierarchy using Gagne’s learning categories (1992) and Bloom’s learning taxonomy (1956) and should cover the whole learning units. 4. Pre-entry test: This element is also important in the design of instructional module. The pre-entry test prepares the schema and knowledge structures that the learner requires before entering the learning unit. It provides the advanced organisers in learning (Ausubel, 1968) and the entry level knowledge or skills. Many studies show that pre-knowledge influences learner’s performance. 5. Multimedia materials: Preparation of multimedia materials such as slides, pictures, charts, models, realia, text books, videos, web-based materials and training materials and equipment that can support printed modular learning. The use of varieties of media may utilise other learning senses and thus enhance learning. Courses that involve lab work or hands-on experience such as engineering and medicine need multimedia support. However, the media selected should assist in the attainment of learning objectives. 6. Learning activities: The learning activities should motivate learners and encourage learner interactions with teacher, learner, and learning materials. These interactions can create continuous two-way dialogue either in real-time or simulated dialogue 344 British Journal of Educational Technology Vol 30 No 4 1999 © British Educational Communications and Technology Agency, 1999. (Holmberg, 1977). Examples of two-way dialogue are in-text questions or exercises, use of interactive media that accompanies the module (simulated dialogue), discussions between teacher and learner and learner with learner (real-time dialogue), case studies, project work and experiment. The use of appropriate learning strategies, learning techniques and media can enhance learning. For example, the learner may be required to do an experiment in the lab (use of demonstration techniques and co-operative learning), be an apprentice in a workplace (situated learning), do a case study (inquiry and discovery technique) or construct a new idea in a real context (constructivism). Answers and guided examples should be included to make the module a self-standing learning material. In short, the learning activities should make learning interesting, active, interactive and meaningful. The learning activities involve the process of thinking, application, problem solving, and knowledge and skills construction. These processes may be done orally, in writing or through demonstration. 7. Self-tests: The self-tests are prepared to measure learner’s progress in stages based on the content and learning objectives. The tests are given at the end of every learning unit or in between text to review and check learners’ progress. Answers to the tests and guided examples should be included in the module. Self-test construction needs to consider the cognitive, psychomotor and affective domains and the sequence of the learning hierarchy that is beginning from lower level skills/knowledge to higher levels. 8. Post-test: The post-test is equally as important as the entry-level test. The post-test will measure the learner’s performance based on the learning objectives at the end of every module. The learner may also compare his/her performance in the post-test with his/her previous performance in the entry-level test. Since distance learners learn without the teacher, the module, being self-instructional and self-contained, takes the responsibility of providing entry-level test and post-test. Section B: Technical design In Section B, the following technical elements and sub elements were evaluated. The seven technical elements and sub elements are adapted from the Centre’s house style (see Table 1). 1. References: A list of references needs to be included at the end of every learning unit. The style needs to be consistent, for example APA style. The in-text references (author and year) should correspond with the references. 2. Layout: Is the text justified or unjustified? Is there enough space to write and read comfortably? 3. Format: Do the modules have the following elements? • Author/subject index • Glossary/terms • Dedication page • Preface page • Figures, diagrams or appendices pages •